The Caledonian orogeny is one of the most recent extinct mountain-building events. It took place in several phases during the three-way collision of continental blocks called Laurentia, Baltica, and Avalonia during the early stages of the assembly of the supercontinent Pangea. In the process, Himalayan-scale mountains were formed. While these mountains have been worn down today, we still see plenty of evidence for their existence in locations straddling the Atlantic and the Norwegian Sea. In the podcast, Rob Strachan describes the tectonic movements that led to the orogen and explains how we can reconstruct the sequence of events that occurred and what we can learn about today’s mountain-forming processes by studying the exhumed rocks of ancient orogens.

Strachan has studied the rocks of the Caledonian orogen for over 40 years, focusing on unraveling the history of the orogen in what is Scotland today. He is Emeritus Professor of Geology at the University of Portsmouth.

With most of Greenland buried by kilometers of ice, obtaining direct information about its geology is challenging. But we can learn a lot from measurements of the island’s geophysical properties — seismic, gravity, magnetic from airborne and satellite surveys and from its topography, which we can see relatively well through the ice using radar. In the podcast, Joe MacGregor explains how he created a new map of Greenland’s geology and speculates on what we can learn from it.

MacGregor is a Research Physical Scientist at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center.

As we wean ourselves away from fossil fuels and ramp up our reliance on alternatives, batteries become ever more important for two main reasons. First, we need grid-scale batteries to store excess electricity from time-varying sources such as wind and solar. Second, we use them to power electric vehicles, which we are now producing at the rate of about 15 million a year worldwide.

So far, the battery of choice is the lithium-ion battery. In addition to lithium, these rely on four metals — copper, nickel, cobalt, and manganese. In the podcast, Adam Simon explains the role these metals play in a battery. He then describes the geological context and origin of the economically viable deposits from which we extract these metals.

Simon is a professor of economic geology at the University of Michigan.